Volume 10 Number 2 2026
Engineering the Trojan Horse: Programming Bacterial Vectors for Targeted Payload Delivery
Nur E Ahad1, Mahmud Hasan Khan1, MD Yasin Sharker1, Md. Asaduzzaman Shishir2, Kazi Fahmida Rahman1, Kazi Samia Pial1, Md. Murshed Hasan Sarkar1, Kazi Md. Mostafizur Rahman1, SM Bakhtiar Ul Islam1, Nayeema Bulbul1, Jinath Sultana Jime1, Ashrafus Safa3, Md. Fakruddin1*
Integrative Biomedical Research 10 (2) 1-8 https://doi.org/10.25163/biomedical.10210950
Submitted: 11 August 2026 Revised: 29 September 2026 Accepted: 06 October 2026 Published: 08 October 2026
It is often challenging to implement precision medicine in practice because accessing diseased tissues through complex physiological barriers is difficult. Solid tumors and chronically inflamed tissues, as seen in IBD, create hostile microenvironments marked by hypoxia, acidosis, and increased pressure that preclude conventional macromolecular therapies. This review examines the advancement of bacterial vectors developed as living Trojan Horses via synthetic biology, intended to colonize and transport potent payloads to pathological locations. It examines chassis options, such as Escherichia coli Nissle 1917, and weakened pathogens, including Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes. We talk about genetic control devices like the Synchronized Lysis Circuit (SLC) and secretion systems (T1SS–T6SS). We also discuss how engineered bacteria utilise biochemical signals to release cytokines, nanobodies, or enzymes that convert prodrugs into active drugs. The creation of biocontainment switches and "nanoarmors" has made things safer and more effective. Although improvements are being made, issues persist with the stability of genetic circuits and the variability of bacterial engraftment. To find a balance between virulence attenuation and colonization, we need to use a variety of fields. For clinical success, it is crucial to continue developing autonomous biocontainment and regulatory pathways for live biotherapeutic products (LBPs).
Keywords: Engineered bacterial vectors; synthetic biology; targeted payload delivery; living therapeutics; tumor microenvironment; biocontainment; live biotherapeutic products.
Abedi, M. H., Yao, M. S., Mittelstein, D. R., Bar-Zion, A., Swift, M., Lee-Gosselin, A., et al. (2022). Ultrasound-controllable engineered bacteria for cancer immunotherapy. Nature Communications, 13(1), 1585. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29065-2
Aggarwal, N., Kitano, S., Puah, G. R. Y., Kittelmann, S., Hwang, I. Y., & Chang, M. W. (2022). Microbiome and Human Health: Current Understanding, Engineering, and Enabling Technologies. Chemical Reviews, 123(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00431
Ajo-Franklin, C. M., Drubin, D. A., Eskin, J. A., Gee, E. P. S., Landgraf, D., Phillips, I., et al. (2007). Rational design of memory in eukaryotic cells. Genes & Development, 21(18), 2271. https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.1586107
Alshawwa, S. Z., Kassem, A. A., Farid, R. M., Mostafa, S. K., & Labib, G. S. (2022). Nanocarrier Drug Delivery Systems: Characterization, Limitations, Future Perspectives and Implementation of Artificial Intelligence. Pharmaceutics, 14(4), 883. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14040883
Anderson, J. C., Voigt, C. A., & Arkin, A. P. (2007). Environmental signal integration by a modular AND gate. Molecular Systems Biology, 3(1), 133. https://doi.org/10.1038/msb4100173
Armetta, J. (2022). Sequence-guided approaches for the cultivation and engineering of the gut microbiome [Doctoral dissertation, Technical University of Denmark]. Research Portal Denmark. https://local.forskningsportal.dk/local/dki-cgi/ws/cris-link?src=dtu&id=dtu-43733bed-f266-45e2-8f92-80b372a3c15d
Basler, M. (2015). Type VI secretion system: secretion by a contractile nanomachine. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences, 370(1679), 20150021. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0021
Broadway, K. M., Suh, S., Behkam, B., & Scharf, B. E. (2017). Optimizing the restored chemotactic behavior of anticancer agent Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium VNP20009. Journal of Biotechnology, 251, 76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2017.04.006
Cao, Z., & Liu, J. (2024). Surface nanocoating of bacteria as a versatile platform to develop living therapeutics. Nature Protocols, 19(11), 3162. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41596-024-01019-6
Chand, D., Savitsky, D. A., Krishnan, S., Mednick, G., Delépine, C., García-Broncano, P., et al. (2024). Botensilimab, an Fc-Enhanced Anti–CTLA-4 Antibody, Is Effective against Tumors Poorly Responsive to Conventional Immunotherapy. Cancer Discovery, 14(12), 2407. https://doi.org/10.1158/2159-8290.cd-24-0190
Charbonneau, M. R., Isabella, V. M., Li, N., & Kurtz, C. (2020). Developing a new class of engineered live bacterial therapeutics to treat human diseases. Nature Communications, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15508-1
Chen, A., Pan, Y., & Chen, J. (2023). Clinical, genetic, and experimental research of hyperphenylalaninemia. Frontiers in Genetics, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2022.1051153
Chen, H., Lei, P., Ji, H., Yang, Q., Peng, B., Ma, J., et al. (2023). Advances in Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 as a customizable drug delivery system for disease treatment and diagnosis strategies. Materials Today Bio, 18, 100543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100543
Chen, K., Huang, L., Yang, M., Yue, N., Luo, D. W., Zhang, Y., et al. (2025). Microbiome engineering: unlocking therapeutic potential in inflammatory bowel disease. Frontiers in Microbiology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1610029
Chien, T., Doshi, A., & Danino, T. (2017). Advances in bacterial cancer therapies using synthetic biology. Current Opinion in Systems Biology, 5, 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coisb.2017.05.009
Chowdhury, S., Castro, S., Coker, C., Hinchliffe, T. E., Arpaia, N., & Danino, T. (2019). Programmable bacteria induce durable tumor regression and systemic antitumor immunity. Nature Medicine, 25(7), 1057. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-019-0498-z
Cook, D. P., Gysemans, C., & Mathieu, C. (2018). Lactococcus lactis As a Versatile Vehicle for Tolerogenic Immunotherapy. Frontiers in Immunology, 8, 1961. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.01961
Daeffler, K. N. M., Galley, J. D., Sheth, R. U., Ortiz-Velez, L., Bibb, C. O., Shroyer, N. F., et al. (2017). Engineering bacterial thiosulfate and tetrathionate sensors for detecting gut inflammation. Molecular Systems Biology, 13(4), 923. https://doi.org/10.15252/msb.20167416
Daniel, R., Rubens, J. R., Sarpeshkar, R., & Lu, T. K. (2013). Synthetic analog computation in living cells. Nature, 497(7451), 619. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12148
Danino, T., Mondragón-Palomino, O., Tsimring, L. S., & Hasty, J. (2010). A synchronized quorum of genetic clocks. Nature, 463(7279), 326. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08753
Danino, T., Prindle, A., Kwong, G. A., Skalak, M., Li, H., Allen, K., et al. (2015). Programmable probiotics for detection of cancer in urine. Science Translational Medicine, 7(289). https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aaa3519
Dey, S., Seyfert, C. E., Fink-Straube, C., Kany, A. M., Müller, R., & Sankaran, S. (2024). Thermo-amplifier circuit in probiotic E. coli for stringently temperature-controlled release of a novel antibiotic. Journal of Biological Engineering, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13036-024-00463-y
Din, M. O., Danino, T., Prindle, A., Skalak, M., Selimkhanov, J., Allen, K., et al. (2016). Synchronized cycles of bacterial lysis for in vivo delivery. Nature, 536(7614), 81. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature18930
Ding, Y. D., Shu, L. Z., He, R. S., Chen, K., Deng, Y. J., Zhou, Z., et al. (2023). Listeria monocytogenes: a promising vector for tumor immunotherapy. Frontiers in Immunology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1278011
Duan, L., Zheng, F., Merlin, D., Wang, H., Xiao, Z., & Xiao, B. (2021). Editorial: Oral Nanotherapeutics for Colon Diseases. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2021.816304
Farzadfard, F., & Lu, T. K. (2014). Genomically encoded analog memory with precise in vivo DNA writing in living cell populations. Science, 346(6211), 1256272. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1256272
Flickinger, J. C., Rodeck, U., & Snook, A. E. (2018). Listeria monocytogenes as a Vector for Cancer Immunotherapy: Current Understanding and Progress. Vaccines, 6(3), 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6030048
Fotopoulou, E. T., Jenkins, C., Painset, A., & Amar, C. (2024). Listeria monocytogenes: the silent assassin. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 73(3). https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.001800
Gardner, T. S., Cantor, C. R., & Collins, J. J. (2000). Construction of a genetic toggle switch in Escherichia coli. Nature, 403(6767), 339. https://doi.org/10.1038/35002131
Graff, A. M., & Barry, S. M. (2024). Siderophores as tools and treatments. npj Antimicrobials and Resistance, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44259-024-00053-4
Green, E. R., & Mecsas, J. (2016). Bacterial Secretion Systems: An Overview. Microbiology Spectrum, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.vmbf-0012-2015
Green, J., & Paget, M. S. B. (2004). Bacterial redox sensors. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 2(12), 954. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1022
Harimoto, T., Hahn, J., Chen, Y., Im, J., Zhang, J., Hou, N., et al. (2022). A programmable encapsulation system improves delivery of therapeutic bacteria in mice. Nature Biotechnology, 40(8), 1259. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-022-01244-y
Husseiny, M. I., & Hensel, M. (2006). Construction of highly attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium live vectors for delivering heterologous antigens by chromosomal integration. Microbiological Research, 163(6), 605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2006.10.003
Isabella, V. M., Ha, B., Castillo, M. J., Lubkowicz, D., Rowe, S. E., Millet, Y., et al. (2018). Development of a synthetic live bacterial therapeutic for the human metabolic disease phenylketonuria. Nature Biotechnology, 36(9), 857. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt.4222
Jankú, F., Zhang, H. H., Pezeshki, A., Goel, S., Murthy, R., Wang-Gillam, A., et al. (2020). Intratumoral Injection of Clostridium novyi -NT Spores in Patients with Treatment-refractory Advanced Solid Tumors. Clinical Cancer Research, 27(1), 96. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-20-2065
Kato, Y., & Mori, H. (2024). Genetically stable kill-switch using “demon and angel” expression construct of essential genes. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2024.1365870
Kelly, C. L., Harris, A. W. K., Steel, H., Hancock, E. J., Heap, J., & Papachristodoulou, A. (2018). Synthetic negative feedback circuits using engineered small RNAs. Nucleic Acids Research, 46(18), 9875. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gky828
Kelly, J., Rubin, A. J., Davis, J. H., Ajo-Franklin, C. M., Cumbers, J., Czar, M. J., et al. (2009). Measuring the activity of BioBrick promoters using an in vivo reference standard. Journal of Biological Engineering, 3(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1754-1611-3-4
Kelwick, R., MacDonald, J. T., Webb, A. J., & Freemont, P. S. (2014). Developments in the Tools and Methodologies of Synthetic Biology. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2014.00060
Kiley, P. J., & Beinert, H. (2003). The role of Fe–S proteins in sensing and regulation in bacteria. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 6(2), 181. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1369-5274(03)00039-0
Kim, K., Kang, M., & Cho, B. (2023). Systems and synthetic biology-driven engineering of live bacterial therapeutics. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2023.1267378
Kocijancic, D., Felgner, S., Schauer, T., Frahm, M., Heise, U., Zimmermann, K., et al. (2017). Local application of bacteria improves safety ofSalmonella-mediated tumor therapy and retains advantages of systemic infection. Oncotarget, 8(30), 49988. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.18392
Kong, Y., Bai, H., Deng, F., Zhao, Y., Li, Q., & Chang, L. (2025). Application of bifidobacterium in tumor therapy. Frontiers in Oncology, 15, 1551924. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2025.1551924
König, H., Frank, D. N., Heil, R., & Coenen, C. (2013). Synthetic Genomics and Synthetic Biology Applications Between Hopes and Concerns. Current Genomics, 14(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.2174/138920213804999147
Kramer, M. G., Masner, M., Ferreira, F., & Hoffman, R. M. (2018). Bacterial Therapy of Cancer: Promises, Limitations, and Insights for Future Directions. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00016
Li, S., Yao, Q., Li, J., Yang, H., Qian, R., Zheng, M., et al. (2024). Inhibition of neutrophil swarming by type I interferon promotes intracellular bacterial evasion. Nature Communications, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-53060-4
Lieberman, L. A. (2022). Outer membrane vesicles: A bacterial-derived vaccination system. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 1029146. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1029146
Liu, Y., Feng, J., Pan, H., Zhang, X., & Zhang, Y. (2022). Genetically engineered bacterium: Principles, practices, and prospects. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.997587
Mathieu, C., Wiedeman, A., Cerosaletti, K., Long, S. A., Serti, E., Cooney, L. G., et al. (2023). A first-in-human, open-label Phase 1b and a randomised, double-blind Phase 2a clinical trial in recent-onset type 1 diabetes with AG019 as monotherapy and in combination with teplizumab. Diabetologia, 67(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-023-06014-2
Mi, Z., Feng, Z., Li, C., Yang, X., Ma, M., & Rong, P. (2019). Salmonella-Mediated Cancer Therapy: An Innovative Therapeutic Strategy. Journal of Cancer, 10(20), 4765. https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.32650
Mikkelsen, T. A., McIlroy, J. R., Mimiague, M., Rouanet, A., & Sterkman, L. (2020). Towards an EU-wide suitable regulatory framework for faecally derived, industrially manufactured medicinal products. United European Gastroenterology Journal, 8, 351. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050640620910313
Min, H. J., Choi, K., Yun, S., & Jang, S. (2025). Live Biotherapeutic Products for Metabolic Diseases: Development Strategies, Challenges, and Future Directions. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 35. https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2410.10054
Moon, T. S., Lou, C., Tamsir, A., Stanton, B. C., & Voigt, C. A. (2012). Genetic programs constructed from layered logic gates in single cells. Nature, 491(7423), 249. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11516
Nguyen, D. H., Chong, A., Hong, Y., & Min, J. (2023). Bioengineering of bacteria for cancer immunotherapy. Nature Communications, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39224-8
Nielsen, A. A. K., Der, B. S., Shin, J., Vaidyanathan, P., Paralanov, V., Strychalski, E. A., et al. (2016). Genetic circuit design automation. Science, 352(6281). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac7341
Omer, R., Mohsin, M., Mohsin, A., Mushtaq, B. S., Huang, X., Guo, M., et al. (2022). Engineered Bacteria-Based Living Materials for Biotherapeutic Applications. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2022.870675
Oswald, J., Njenga, R., Natriashvili, A., Sarmah, P., & Koch, H. (2021). The Dynamic SecYEG Translocon. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences, 8, 664241. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2021.664241
Pfeifer, B. A., Beitelshees, M., Hill, A., Bassett, J., & Jones, C. H. (2023). Harnessing synthetic biology for advancing RNA therapeutics and vaccine design. npj Systems Biology and Applications, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41540-023-00323-3
Pickard, J. M., Zeng, M. Y., Caruso, R., & Núñez, G. (2017). Gut microbiota: Role in pathogen colonization, immune responses, and inflammatory disease. Immunological Reviews, 279(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12567
Puurunen, M., Vockley, J., Searle, S., Sacharow, S., Phillips, J. A., Denney, W. S., et al. (2021). Safety and pharmacodynamics of an engineered E. coli Nissle for the treatment of phenylketonuria: a first-in-human phase 1/2a study. Nature Metabolism, 3(8), 1125. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-021-00430-7
Qiu, P., Ishimoto, T., Fu, L., Zhang, J., Zhang, Z., & Liu, Y. (2022). The Gut Microbiota in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 733992. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2022.733992
Rayner, B., Verderosa, A. D., Ferro, V., & Blaskovich, M. A. T. (2023). Siderophore conjugates to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria. RSC Medicinal Chemistry, 14(5), 800. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2md00465h
Reister, M., Hoffmeier, K., Krezdorn, N., Rotter, B., Liang, C., Rund, S. A., et al. (2014). Complete genome sequence of the Gram-negative probiotic Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917. Journal of Biotechnology, 187, 106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2014.07.442
Riglar, D. T., Baym, M., Kerns, S. J., Niederhuber, M. J., Bronson, R. T., Kotula, J. W., et al. (2016). Long-term monitoring of inflammation in the mammalian gut using programmable commensal bacteria. bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory). https://doi.org/10.1101/075051
Riglar, D. T., Giessen, T. W., Baym, M., Kerns, S. J., Niederhuber, M. J., Bronson, R. T., et al. (2017). Engineered bacteria can function in the mammalian gut long-term as live diagnostics of inflammation. Nature Biotechnology, 35(7), 653. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt.3879
Rodriguez, J., Cordaillat-Simmons, M., Pot, B., & Druart, C. (2025). The regulatory framework for microbiome-based therapies: insights into European regulatory developments. npj Biofilms and Microbiomes, 11(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41522-025-00683-0
Roquet, N., Soleimany, A. P., Ferris, A. C., Aaronson, S., & Lu, T. K. (2016). Synthetic recombinase-based state machines in living cells. Science, 353(6297). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad8559
Sarkar, A., & Mandal, S. (2016). Bifidobacteria—Insight into clinical outcomes and mechanisms of its probiotic action. Microbiological Research, 192, 159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2016.07.001
Schmidt, C. K., Medina-Sánchez, M., Edmondson, R. J., & Schmidt, O. G. (2020). Engineering microrobots for targeted cancer therapies from a medical perspective. Nature Communications, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19322-7
Shang, F., Jiang, X., Wang, H., Guo, S., Kang, S., Xu, B., et al. (2024). Bifidobacterium longum suppresses colorectal cancer through the modulation of intestinal microbes and immune function. Frontiers in Microbiology, 15, 1327464. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1327464
St. Jean, A., Zhang, M., & Forbes, N. S. (2008). Bacterial therapies: completing the cancer treatment toolbox. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 19(5), 511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2008.08.004
Stanton, B. C., Nielsen, A. A. K., Tamsir, A., Clancy, K., Peterson, T. C., & Voigt, C. A. (2013). Genomic mining of prokaryotic repressors for orthogonal logic gates. Nature Chemical Biology, 10(2), 99. https://doi.org/10.1038/nchembio.1411
Swofford, C. A., St. Jean, A., Panteli, J. T., Brentzel, Z. J., & Forbes, N. S. (2014). Identification of Staphylococcus aureus α-hemolysin as a protein drug that is secreted by anticancer bacteria and rapidly kills cancer cells. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 111(6), 1233. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.25184
Tamsir, A., Tabor, J. J., & Voigt, C. A. (2010). Robust multicellular computing using genetically encoded NOR gates and chemical ‘wires.’ Nature, 469(7329), 212. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09565
Tanniche, I., & Behkam, B. (2023). Engineered live bacteria as disease detection and diagnosis tools. Journal of Biological Engineering, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13036-023-00379-z
Theisen, E., & Sauer, J. (2016). Listeria monocytogenes and the Inflammasome: From Cytosolic Bacteriolysis to Tumor Immunotherapy. Current topics in microbiology and immunology, 133. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41171-2_7
Toso, J., Gill, V. J., Hwu, P., Marincola, F. M., Restifo, N. P., Schwartzentruber, D. J., et al. (2002). Phase I Study of the Intravenous Administration of AttenuatedSalmonella typhimuriumto Patients With Metastatic Melanoma. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 20(1), 142. https://doi.org/10.1200/jco.2002.20.1.142
Unden, G., & Schirawski, J. (1997). The oxygen-responsive transcriptional regulator FNR of Escherichia coli : the search for signals and reactions. Molecular Microbiology, 25(2), 205. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2958.1997.4731841.x
van ‘t Hof, M. (2022). Prediction, precision, and safety in advanced microbial therapeutics [Doctoral dissertation, Technical University of Denmark]. Research Portal Denmark. https://local.forskningsportal.dk/local/dki-cgi/ws/cris-link?src=dtu&id=dtu-88d5d0a9-2e43-42a9-98f8-36d9052ba5a9
Van Dessel, N., Swofford, C. A., & Forbes, N. S. (2015). Potent and Tumor specific: Arming Bacteria With Therapeutic Proteins. Therapeutic Delivery, 6(3), 385. https://doi.org/10.4155/tde.14.113
Vockley, J., Sondheimer, N., Puurunen, M., Díaz, G. A., Ginevic, I., Grange, D. K., et al. (2023). Efficacy and safety of a synthetic biotic for treatment of phenylketonuria: a phase 2 clinical trial. Nature Metabolism, 5(10), 1685. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-023-00897-6
Wang, M. G., Liu, M., Wang, D., Yang, D., Yiwei, Z., Lan, Y., et al. (2025). Engineered bacteria for cancer therapy: Advancements, challenges, and future directions. Chinese Medical Journal, 138(24), 3224. https://doi.org/10.1097/cm9.0000000000003807
Winter, S., Thiennimitr, P., Winter, M. G., Butler, B. P., Huseby, D. L., Crawford, R. W., et al. (2010). Gut inflammation provides a respiratory electron acceptor for Salmonella. Nature, 467(7314), 426. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09415
Winter, S., Winter, M. G., Xavier, M. N., Thiennimitr, P., Poon, V., Keestra, A. M., et al. (2013). Host-Derived Nitrate Boosts Growth of E. coli in the Inflamed Gut. Science, 339(6120), 708. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232467
Yan, S., Sun, X., & Wang, K. (2025). From cold to hot tumors: feasibility of applying therapeutic insights to TNBC. Discover Oncology, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12672-025-03745-z
Zeng, H., Xie, M., Ding, C., Ma, J., Xu, D., Wang, X., et al. (2020). Attenuated Listeria monocytogenes as a Vaccine Vector for the Delivery of OMPW, the Outer Membrane Protein of Aeromonas hydrophila. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, 70. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00070
Zoaby, N., Shainsky-Roitman, J., Badarneh, S., Abumanhal, H., Leshansky, A. M., Yaron, S., et al. (2016). Autonomous bacterial nanoswimmers target cancer. Journal of Controlled Release, 257, 68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.10.006
Zong, R., Ruan, H., Liu, C., Fan, S., & Li, J. (2023). Bacteria and Bacterial Components as Natural Bio-Nanocarriers for Drug and Gene Delivery Systems in Cancer Therapy. Pharmaceutics, 15(10), 2490. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15102490
Zscherp, R., Coetzee, J., Vornweg, J. R., Grunenberg, J., Herrmann, J., Müller, R., et al. (2021). Biomimetic enterobactin analogue mediates iron-uptake and cargo transport into E. coli and P. aeruginosa. Chemical Science, 12(30), 10179. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1sc02084f
Zúñiga, A., Rufino, M. C., Chang, H., Fristot, E., Mayonove, P., Hani, E. H., et al. (2021). Engineered l-Lactate Responding Promoter System Operating in Glucose-Rich and Anoxic Environments. ACS Synthetic Biology, 10(12), 3527. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssynbio.1c00456
Targeted Protein Degraders (PROTACs) Overcome KRAS Inhibitor Resistance and Remodel Antitumor Immunity in Lung Cancer
Targeted Nanomedicine for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Closing the Delivery Efficiency Gap
Engineering the Gut Ecosystem by Precision-Designed Probiotics and Synthetic Microbial Consortia as Programmable Living Therapeutics